Complete Research Paper Drafts and Peer Reviews Essay

Complete Research Paper Drafts and Peer Reviews - Essay Example Consequently, paper examines both the positive and negative impacts of the internet on the publishing industry. In evaluation, the positive and negative impacts of the internet on the publishing industry will guide policy and point on to major features that need to be improved on. Further, the examination of the trend in the industry that is caused by the internet will help in predicting the future changes that may be experienced in the industry. Moreover, this research will enable researchers in the future to identify potential areas of industry that can be researched on. The internet has improved the publishing industry by enabling books to be printed on deman, online marketing that reaches more readers and perhaps, the e-book which has significantly lowered book transport costs. This research looked at the carious reources that have been written relative to the study. A research by Kennedy (2009) provides information on the effects of using this criterion of electronic publishing. It is much useful in that it gives detailed information on the future of publishers and librarians who are applying the idea of electronic publishing. Kennedy predicts that the internet will ultimately change the various positions held by different players in the industry and that some will have to be eliminated or fit themselves in the expanded market. Contrary, Otuoma (2002) predicts that the future market for the publishing industry though expanded will need fewer players to supply it hence many players will not find space in the industry but will be eliminated. This research by Otuoma has been of much help in this research as it focuses on the landscape of the technology basically the content production. Importantly, it is useful for this research since it brings out the distribution of the technology in different nations as the publishers work more hard so that they can fit in this

It is up to you Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

It is up to you - Coursework Example The best experience is that everybody could give there points and express themselves without any fear as we were all equal. As much as many people consider these tutorials as a waste of money and time, I am not of the same idea because we gained a lot and we made sure we attended lecturers without the fear of the different styles used for teaching or even getting confused in the process. I have to agree though that we had difficulty in understanding some content and I ended up failing in some exams. The phrase, ‘Recognizing and editing sentence fragments’ gave me a lot of hard times in the tutorial as no one could clearly explain it to me. Eventually my grades started improving and I got to understand the things that we were discussing. The time that I had impressive grades in all the courses marked my success point in the tutorials. What I like most is that is that I encounter these things in my life and I don’t have hard time tackling

Binge Drinking Among College Students and Consequences Essay Example for Free

Binge Drinking Among College Students and Consequences Essay Binge drinking is a problem that has continued to have a toll on the lives of college students despite efforts by the government and school administrators to curb the trend. Many studies have been conducted to reveal the facts behind binge drinking in colleges and campuses. It is clear that for the problem of binge drinking in colleges to be resolved, it must all start by understanding the factors that influence college students to engage in this behaviour and the impacts that binge drinking have had on the lives of college students. This is because students who do engage in binge drinking have their reasons to justify their behaviour but often have failed to recognize the magnitude of risks that they are exposed to by binge drinking. Among the government initiatives to reduce this problem has been to increase the national drinking age though this has not had much impact on the level of binge drinking among college students according to several studies. It is worth noting that many students have been indulging in binge drinking with the excuse that it is normal as per the culture in their colleges. There are other factors that influence college students to binge drink including environmental, social, developmental, and cognitive factors. Though most students who binge drink defend their behaviour by citing the positive side of binge drinking such as curbing stress and elevating self-confidence, the consequences are often costly and regrettable. This essay provides an argument on the factors that influence college students to indulge in binge drinking, including the various false beliefs about alcohol consumption. In addition, the essay will shed light on the consequences of binge drinking and show that contrary to the tendency of college students to glamorize binge drinking, it is a risky and costly endeavour. Binge drinking has been defined as heavy episodic alcohol consumption in which men end up taking five or more drinks in a si tting while women take four or more drinks in a sitting (Nelson and Wechsler 287). The prevalence of binge drinking on college campuses has remained high, posing serious health, academic, social, and legal implications. In order to understand binge drinking, it is worth mentioning that drinking is measured in terms of frequency or quantity. While quantity refers to how much, frequency is concerned with measuring how often consumption takes place. A drinking behaviour qualifies as binge drinking if large quantities of alcohol are consumed within a short time frame (Binge Drinking). By looking at the history and prevalence of binge drinking among college students, it leaves no doubt that changing drinking age over time has had little impact on the prevalence of drinking on college campuses. Beer drinking among college students is not a new phenomenon as tales dating back to 19th century are told of college students engaging in drinking. A survey conducted by Yale University researchers in 1949 gave an idea of the prevalence of drinking on college campuses. The survey found that 6% of women and 17% of men engaged in drinking more than once per week. In the 1960s and 70s the minimum drinking age in many states was set at 18 to agree with the requirement that those joining the military ought to be old enough to drink (Dietz 88). However, this action only paved way for increased drinking on college campuses given that now drinking was legal. The government had to act swiftly to arrest this trend and in 1984, the minimum drinking age was set at 21. Even then, the level of drinking remained almost the same as most college students had attained this age and thus regarded themselves as being entitled to drink (Krock). Drinking rates over the past 20 years have remained relatively at the same level and now it is estimated that 80-90% of college students are into drinking. Heavy drinkers constitute 15-25% of college students and 44% of college students report frequent or occasional binge drinking (Dietz 88). These statistics are indicative of the fact that binge drinking is a problem that is deep rooted in other factors such as the kind of cultures in colleges, environmental, cognitive, and developmental factors. Therefore, altering the national drinking age while it has shown positive impacts in the general population in terms of decreasing the prevalence of binge drinking, cannot offer a comprehensive solution to the same problem in colleges (Krock). The culture of drinking on campus has contributed a great deal to the high prevalence of binge drinking. While acknowledging the fact that unique cultures exist among individual colleges, these individual cultures harbour certain sub-cultures that encourage excessive consumption of alcohol. Within these sub-cultures, a common message is perpetuated that drinking is a normal and essential component of social interaction. Therefore, many college students conduct themselves in a manner that agrees with what the prevailing culture dictates (Ho pe and Ham 727). The culture of drinking on college campuses is composed of a number of elements. The first element is drinking events which encourage students to indulge in drinking to mark certain events (Dietz 89). In the same way that universities and colleges have a strong sense of tradition, the drinking culture has deep roots in most colleges. Therefore, many students engage in binge drinking in the process of honouring certain events that to them require people to drink in order for the commemoration to have real meaning (Dietz 89). In as much as the culture of drinking in many colleges and universities is difficult to do away with, it has only served to make students make the wrong decision of involving themselves in heavy episodic drinking characteristic of binge drinking. The bottom line is that in the disguise of marking particular events, many college students involve themselves in binge drinking thus exposing themselves to detrimental consequences. Drinking games is an element of drinking culture in colleges that have contributed to the high prevalence of binge drinking. In some colleges, students have tended to glamorize the aspect of drinking alcohol to the extent that drinking gam es are held in which students compete in drinking alcohol. Some drinking games are highly competitive while others just dictate rules regarding how much participants are expected to drink (Dietz 89). Nevertheless, the fact is that whether a drinking is highly competitive or not, by the virtue of portraying drinking as totally harmless, such games have encouraged binge drinking to the detriment of many students. It is true to say that in order to create opportunities for excessive drinking, students in many colleges have perpetuated drinking games entrenched in the culture of drinking. A good example of a drinking game in colleges is Beer Pong in which 6-16 cups partially filled with alcohol are taken by each team. The person playing the game is expected to throw a ping-pong ball aiming at the opponent’s cup across the table. If the ball lands into the partially filled cup, the opponent has to drink the content. The team that runs out of cups first is considered the loser (Dietz 89). By considering the nature of such a game, it is prudent to note that its objective is to encourage excessive drinking judging by the number of cups involved. Therefore, students who get involved in such games more often than not end up binge drinking in the name of having fun but in reality exposes themselves to negative consequences. Another important factor which makes college students to indulge in binge drinking is the kind of choices they make in terms of the groups they want to identify themselves with given that college students are eager to have a sense of belonging. One study targeting to investigate how college students seek to have a sense of belonging revealed that those students who joined Greek organizations drank consistently and more heavily than those who did not join Greek societies (Hensley). Greek societies are known to be prevalent in colleges and often entice students to join them in order to gain a sense of brotherhood or sisterhood. However, many students who agree to join these organizations are exposed to a life of excessive drinking in the disguise of obeying induction rituals. Eventually, the life of excessive drinking becomes part and parcel of these students (Dietz 90). While it is understandable that many students joining college are eager to identify themselves with particular groups or organizations, it is expected of them to make prudent decisions which would not compromise their studies and their lives in college. Unfortunately, many students have ended up in binge drinking through making inappropriate decisions only to realize when things go terribly wrong. Athletics is also another element of college culture whereby, students take the moment as an excuse for drinking but then end up binge drinking. When students drink excessively during sporting events, they often cause incidences and fall in trouble with authorities. Drunken fans are known for causing chaos during and after games irrespective of the game outcome. Consequently, property may be damaged and both bystanders and the rioters suffer serious injuries (Dietz 91). For students who binge drink because of sporting events, it is just a flimsy excuse and the consequences are often regrett able. Therefore, drinking games, sporting events, traditional drinking events, and Greek organizations are the elements of the culture of drinking on college campuses which make many students involve themselves in binge drinking. Unfortunately, the notion that alcohol is essential for complete social life on campus is a misconception whose consequences are harmful. Apart from the culture of drinking, college students are influenced into binge drinking by environmental, developmental, and cognitive factors. Regarding the environment, logic dictates that the way someone behaves is more often than not influenced by what is going on in the surrounding. Therefore, when students drink in environments where people have carried alcohol to drink, drinking games are being played, hard alcohol is available in plenty, and the people around are intoxicated; binge drinking can always be predicted. On the other hand a drinking environment where drinking is taking place in a family setting, in the context of dating or where food is available, studies have shown that in such environments, binge drinking is very unlikely (Dietz 92). Though this suggestion carries weight, it is paramount to reckon that studies that have been done on such environmental implications on the likelihood of binge drinking have been largely correlational. What this means is that though the first kind of environment may contribute to the occurrence of binge drinking, it is also a possibility that those students who indulge in binge drinking are already present in such an environment. Therefore, it would be difficult to determine for instance whether playing of drinking games in such an environment resulted from the presence of binge drinkers or whether students ended up binge drinking because of being in an environment where people played drinking games (Dietz 92). Nevertheless, it leaves no doubt that depending on the kind of environment that students expose themselves to, the likelihood of binge drinking either increases or decreases. Cognitive factors constitute another influential force which has led many college students to develop binge drinking behaviour. The cognitive influences are deeply rooted in misleading beliefs about alcohol, the notion that binge drinking is something that is acceptable, and misinformation about the effects of excessive alcohol consumption. Regarding the false beliefs or myths that some college students confidently hold on to, there are those who believe that everybody is engaging in binge drinking and thus experiences similar negative consequences (Binge Drinking). This is a misguided thought because a significant percentage of college students do not engage in binge drinking. At the same time, the negative consequences experienced by those who indulge in binge drinking vary and cannot be the same. For instance, according to the direct effects model, binge drinking consequences are determined by both the drinking beliefs and the binge drinking tendencies. Going by this model, students who hold more risky myths such as â€Å"everybody is doing it† is more likely to experience harsher consequences. This is because; such students are often lured into thinking that binge drinking cannot make them suffer physical harm. Consequently, they are more likely to involve themselves in highly risky behaviours after binge drinking and hence experience more severe consequences compared to those who do not hold such a myth (Turrisi, Wiersma and Hughes 343). Another myth among binge drinkers is that binge drinking enhances sexual performance and sex appeal. The fact is that binge drinking predisposes students to risky sexual behavior in which some students may engage in unprotected sex which can lead to the contraction of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (DeSimone 2). In fact binge drinking causes disorientation and those who engage in it are incapacitated from making rational decisions when they are drunk. The belief that their sex appeal is enhanced is misguided. There is also the belief among those who attempt to justify binge drinking that binge drinking is a remedy for stress and that it can enhance social interaction. On the contrary, binge drinking has been associated with hangovers and even suicidal thoughts. Binge drinking does not enhance social interactions but instead it triggers quarrels, arguments, fights, and incidences of blacking out and vomiting (Wechsler). Others believe that alcohol is not harmful to the body. Again, such a belief is the total opposite of the fact since alcohol consumption has been associated with serious health consequences including alcohol poisoning. The other aspect of cognitive influences is that some students will engage in binge drinking because they perceive the behavior as acceptable in the eyes of their parents and friends. In other words, they find consolation in the idea that binge drink is not bad after all since their parents and friends do not show any disapproval of the behavior (Dietz 94). Developmental factors also help to explain why college students engage in binge drinking. It is worth noting that once students reach this level of maturity, they naturally develop the desire to be regarded as mature adults who can make independent decisions and be responsible for the consequences of their actions. Therefore, binge drinking behaviour among many college students emanate from this desire to assert their adulthood. Moreover, college students are usually at their prime physically and thus they feel much confident in terms of being able to withstand the impacts of drinking alcohol which may also lead them into drinking excessively (Dietz 91). Though regarded as normal development, the fact that college students are likely to regard as adult hypocrisy anti-drinking messages from people, only puts them at more a vulnerable position. It is also noteworthy that college students are at a stage of critical social and emotional development. For instance, this is a time that they experience a higher level of autonomy since their parents are not around to monitor them. This increased freedom makes many students to make autonomous decisions and often experiment with behaviours that their parents had forbidden them. Moreover, many college students are still continuing with the process of devel oping their identity and in the process, often indulge in behaviours such as binge drinking in search of more sensational experiences (Hope and Ham 727). Peer influence is usually at the centre of identity development as students try to fit in new environments with a sense of belonging. Therefore, given that in many colleges students are confronted with a drinking culture, it is not a wonder that some result to binge drinking. However, many students fail to realize that with more freedom comes the need to be more responsible. This is because too much freedom without a sense of self-control or restraint is harmful. In this regard, in as much as certain developmental factors are normal, it cannot be justified as the excuse for engaging in heavy drinking. Binge drinking has a wide range of negative consequences which many college students fail to foresee before plunging themselves into the risky behaviour of binge drinking. Some students do not think that binge drinking can lead to any immediate negative consequence while others lean on the belief that alcohol does not pose harm to the body at all. Such notions are null and void given th at bingers are often caught in a wide range of crises such as engaging in unplanned or unprotected sex and getting into trouble with the authorities. In addition, bingers are more likely to engage in dangerous acts such as driving while drunk than nonbinging drinkers. Drunk driving is a major cause of car accidents and many young people have lost their lives because of it (Nelson and Wechsler 290). Some of the beliefs about the benefits of binge drinking among college students include the idea that by binge drinking, one can get more sexual opportunities. On the contrary, binge drinking only serves to make bingers behave irresponsibly and engage in risky sexual behaviours such as unplanned or unprotected sex. Consequently, some may contract STIs and HIV/AIDS which is a very high price to pay for being irresponsible. Unwanted pregnancy is another possible outcome of binge drinking which adds to the social burden and compromises the studies of the affected student. Contrary to the notion that binge drinking helps to relieve stress, one of its notable consequences has been the increased risk of committing suicide among college studen ts. Given that 67% of suicide incidences in colleges result from alcohol abuse, the idea that binge drinking causes relaxation is a nonstarter (Wechsler). The health consequences associated with binge drinking are severe. For instance, liver cancer is a fatal illness which can lead to death if not treated early. Another terrible consequence of binge drinking is alcohol poisoning which is a health condition that is not reversible once it occurs. This is a fact which is contrary to what people believe that alcohol poisoning can be reversed by drinking black coffee, walking, sleeping, or taking a cold bath. Time is the only factor that can determine whether the condition will get better or worse. However, due to the high level of alcohol in the blood, there may be no time for the alcohol level to decrease. Instead, the increase in blood alcohol level may continue even after quitting drinking. Consequently, death can result from interruption of breathing functions or the patient may choke on his/her vomit while unconscious (Do You Understand Binge Drinking?). Binge drinking causes students to be left behind in school work and academic performance of binge drinkers is rendered poor. For instance, due to hangovers and disorientation that comes with excessive drinking, students often fail to complete their assignments or to attend lectures. Consequently, their grades continue to deteriorate and their academic life may become a nightmare (Hensley). Such outcomes are contrary to the notion among young binge drinkers that they have the ability to control the effects of excessive drinking. The fact is that the consequences of binge drinking are stronger than one may try to imagine and many students only regret later when it is too late. The second hand effects of binge drinking are also real and come in the form of insults, sleepless nights, unwanted sex advance, arguments, and a ssaults (Wechsler). From this discussion, it leaves no doubt that binge drinking is highly prevalent on college campuses, something that has been contributed by different factors. This is supported by the evidence of many studies showing that despite the national drinking age being increased to 21, binge drinking especially among female students has increased. The consequences of binge drinking are detrimental. This has been witnessed in the form of the escalating cases of road accidents which has cost many lives of college students. Despite the belief among many college students that alcohol consumption enhances social interaction and sex appeal, binge drinking results in quarrels, arguments, and risky sexual behavior. In addition, students who binge drink have often found themselves in trouble with authorities. Poor academic performance due to inability to focus is a big problem among binge drinkers. Contrary to the belief that alcohol releases stress, statistics have proved otherwise. In fact, incidences of suicide have been on the rise among binge drinkers. The notion among binge drinkers that they are able to control the impacts of alcohol is a nonstarter given the high incidences of rape, assault, and vandalism among college students who binge drink. Regarding the culture of drinking in most colleges, this is something that bingers lean on as an excuse for their behavior. Issues of autonomy and the urge to identify with particular groups though real only imply that individual students must make prudent choices amidst the pressure. It all has to start by correcting the misconceptions and wrong attitudes among college students. Nevertheless, binge drinking remains a nagging issue whose consequences are a threat to many generations. Annotated Bibliography 1. Binge Drinking. n.d. Web 25 Nov 2011 . This article presents an argument regarding the way binge drinking has been defined by researchers and helps the reader to understand the controversy surrounding what actually amounts to binge drinking. It acknowledges that binge drinking is characterized by repeated intoxication with alcohol which makes a person become careless and abandon his/her responsibilities. In this case, it is useful in this research paper in terms of shedding light on what amounts to binge drinking and the possible consequences. It also alludes to the fact that binge drinking is still prevalent on college campuses. However, it points out that most of the research results about binge drinking on colleges have not reflected the real picture of the situation. 2. DeSimone, Jeff. Binge Drinking and Risky Sex among College Students. 2010. Web 25 Nov 2011 . This article is useful in this research to the extent of addressing one of the main consequences of binge drinking; risky sexual behaviour. The information in the article is presented in form of a report based on research aimed at finding out the relationship between binge drinking and risky sexual behaviour among college students aged between 18 and 24 years. Its findings that binge drinking increases promiscuity and inability to opt for safer sex such as condom use help to build on the paper’s argument. However, it fails to recognize other numerous negative consequences of binge drinking besides risky sexual behaviour. 3. Dietz, Christine M. Development of Binge Drinking Behavior in College Students: A Developmental Analysis. Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology (2008): 1(1), pp. 86-96. The journal presents valuable information on the factors that influence college students to engage in binge drinking. It extensively addresses the culture of drinking in most colleges which many students lean on as an excuse for intoxicating themselves with alcohol. In addition, the journal discusses the developmental, cognitive, and environmental factors that play a big influential role in binge drinking. The information in the journal is quite useful in this research paper as it presents a broad picture of what has led to the high prevalence of binge drinking on college campuses. However, it falls short of addressing the details of the consequences of binge drinking. 4. Do You Understand Binge Drinking? 2011. Web 25 Nov 2011 . This is an article that explores in a brief but precise manner, what binge drinking is, the myth surrounding binge drinking, and the main health consequences of binge drinking. It helps to build the argument that contrary to what many college students perceive as being invincible to harm, binge drinking is a monster that induces slow death regardless of age. 5. Hensley, Laura G. College Student Binge Drinking: Implications for a Constructivist Approach to College Counseling. Journal of College Counseling (2001): Vol 4. T he journal covers the most fundamental elements presented in this research paper in the form of an argument. It begins by explaining the prevalence of binge drinking and the factors causing this trend such as students joining Greek societies and succumbing to peer pressure. It then highlights the behavioural, health, and academic negative consequences that result from binge drinking. Though the information is useful in building an argument, the journal presents it in form of a report or literature review. 6. Hope, Debra A and Lindsay S Ham. College students and problematic drinking: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review (2003): Vol 23, pp. 719-759. This journal review explores the problem of excessive drinking among college students by citing the findings of a number of studies that have been conducted in the past. It acknowledges the importance of considering frequency and quantity when defining binge drinking. Besides highlighting the consequences of binge drinking, it also explores other aspects such as gender difference in the likelihood of excessive drinking. Nevertheless, it contributes to the research paper since it also addresses factors such as sensation seeking, personality and environmental factors, and cognitive processes as influencing college students to engage in binge drinking. 7. Krock, Becca. Higher drinking age lowers binge drinking for all except college students. 2009. Web 25 Nov 2011 . The article presents important findings from a recent study which revealed that though the national drinking age was set at 21 and has remained so since 1984, the effects on the level of binge drinking among college students have not been significant. However, the article points out that a major decline in the prevalence of binge drinking among teenagers has been noted. The article is relevant to the research paper since it helps the reader to see that altering the drinking age is not enough to curb the issue at hand. The main idea in the article is that since most college students are already 21 years and above, it’s legal for them to drink and the situation is exacerbated by other factors. 8. Nelson, Toben F and Henry Wechsler. Binge Drinking and the American College Student: Whats Five Drink? Psychology of Addictive Behaviours (2001): 15(4), pp. 287-291. The journal article discusses the importance of the clinical five/four measure of binge drinking in evaluating its various consequences. By citing findings about the consequences of binge drinking among college students, the article helps to build the argument presented in this paper. The article notes that there is a huge difference in the severity of binge-drinking consequences between bingers and non-bingers. However, the article does not address the fundamental factors that influence students to engage in binge drinking. 9. Turrisi, Rob, Kimberly A Wiersma and Kelli K Hughes. Binge-Drinking-Related Consequences in College Students: Role of Drinking Beliefs and Mother-Teen Communications. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors (2000): 14(4), 342-355. The information presented in this journal article is highly relevant to the argument since it not only focuses on the false beliefs about alcohol among college students but also the relationship between these beliefs and the consequences. For instance, the article asserts the findings that a direct relationship exists between drinking beliefs and binge-drinking consequences. However, there is no direct relationship between drinking beliefs and consequences when it comes to health matters and physical risk. Overall, the article helps the reader to understand the phenomenon of binge drinking in terms of why students engage in it and the difference in the nature of consequences expected by bingers and the actual consequences. 10. Wechsler, Henry. Binge Drinking on Americas College Campuses. 2009. Web 25 Nov 2011 . In this article, the question of binge drinking is discussed in light of its prevalence which according to the article has remained relatively steady. At the same time, the article notes that more dangerous forms of binge drinking have been on the rise. The far-reaching consequences of binge drinking including alcohol poisoning, poor academic performance, vandalism of property, and physical harm have been highlighted. It helps to underscore the fact that by believing that they are able to control the effects of alcohol, many college students have only predisposed themselves to harm.

Case study: Behavioral Appearance Behavioral Appearance

Case study: Behavioral Appearance Behavioral Appearance To those who find themselves in contact with schizotypal individuals they often range appearing eccentric and aberrant to outright bizarre in their actions. Their behavior is clearly erratic. School and employment histories of these individuals show marked deficits and irregularities. Not only are they frequent dropouts, but they drift from one source of employment to another. If married, they are often separated or divorced. At times, their behavior appears eccentric, that is, they prefer social isolation and may engage in activities that other find curious. In more severe cases, their behavior may seem clearly bizarre. The presence of odd speech patterns is an example. Schizotypal individuals may verbally digress or become metaphorical in their expressions. According to the DSM-III, Often, speech shows marked peculiarities; concepts may be expressed unclearly or oddly or words used deviantly, but never to the point of loosening of associations or incoherence (American Psychiatric Association, 1980, p. 312) Interpersonal Conduct Interpersonally, schizotypals experience a life of isolation, with minimal personal attachment and obligations. As their lives progress it is not uncommon to find these individuals drifting into increasingly superficial and peripheral social and vocational roles. These individuals have virtually no close friends or confidants. They have great difficulty with face-to-face interaction. They commonly experience intense social anxiety at relatively minimal social challenge. For these reasons, we believe the interpersonal conduct of schizotypals may be categorized as ranging from being interpersonal detacted and secretive to inaccessible. Cognitive Style The cognitive style of schizotypal individuals may be ruminative and autistic in less severe variations to blatantly deranged in more severe forms of the disorder. The cognitive slippage and interference that characterize the thought processes of this disorder in its milder forms are simply amplified here. Schizotypals are frequently unable to orient their thoughts logically. They tend to become lost in a plethora of irrelevancies. Their thinking appears scattered and autistic as the disorder manifests itself in its more severe variations. According to the DSM-III, these individuals may report magical thinking (i.e., clairvoyance, telepathy, a sixth sense, or just extreme superstitious behavior). Similarly schizotypals may experience recurrent illusions where they report the presence of a person or force not actually there. Psychotic thought, when it does occur, is transient and not indicative of a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Affective Expression The deficient or disharmonious affect of many of these patients deprives them of the capacity to relate to people, places, or things as anything but flat and lifeless phenomena. Their affective expression ranges from being apathetic to insentient and deadened. On the other hand, some schizotypal individuals seem in a constant state of agitation. Their affective expression ranges from being apprehensive, perhaps even frantic in their affective expression. We will present more on these clinical variations later. Self-Perception Schizotypal individuals often view themselves as forlorn and lacking meaning in life or, in more severe cases, on introspection, they may see themselves as vacant. They may experience recurrent feelings of emptiness or of estrangement. Experiences of depersonalization and dissociation may also be present in these patients. In sum, schizotypals appear virtually self-less as they look inward towards self-appraisal. Primary Defense Mechanism The schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by extreme social and affective isolation as well as autistic and bizarre cognitive functioning. The defense mechanism commonly used by individuals who possess this disorder is undoing. Undoing is a self-purification mechanism in which individuals attempt to repent for some undesirable behavior or evil motive. In effect, undoing represents a form of atonement. In severly pathological forms, undoing may take the form of complex and bizarre rituals, or magical acts. These rituals, such as compulsive hand washing, are designed to cleanse or purify the individual. These compulsions not only cause these individuals discomfort, but they may also consciously recognize them as absurd. Nevertheless, individuals employing such a mechanism appear to have lost the ability to control these acts as well as the ability to see their real meaning. Differential Personality Diagnosis The schizotypal personality disorder is likely to be confused with another severe personality disorder, the borderline disorder. Both the schizotypal and the borderline patterns represent severe personality disorder. Furthermore, according to the present biosocial learning theory, they both emerge when the less severe personality variants decompensate. Yet, there are marked differences in these two disorders. The schizotypal disorder features schizophrenic-like symptoms. These symptoms reflect disturbances in cognitive processes. Thus, the schizotypal is characterized by perceptual pathology as well as social withdrawal and isolation. The most obvious feature of the borderline disorder, on the other hand, is instability of mood. The symptoms of the borderline reflect disturbances in affect rather than cognitive. Finally, the borderline individual is interpersonally dependent, unlike the socially isolated schizotypal. A final note should be made regarding the schizotypal disorder in contrast to the Axiz I schizophrenic disorders. Axis I disorders are characteristically more severe and of relatively shorter duration. The Axis II schizotypal disorder represents the operation of internal, ingrained, and more enduring defects in the patients personality. Although schizophrenic episodes often reflect a psychosocial stressor, the schizotypal disorder represents an underlying and persistent characterological pattern. CLINICAL VARIATIONS The description of the schizotypal personality disorder presented in the previous section portrays the generic aspects of this disorder. It is more common, however, to see the schizotypal pattern manifest itself in one of two major variations. The two major clinical variations of the schizotypal disorder are (1) the schizotypal-schizoid pattern and (2) the schizotypal-avoidant pattern. Schizotypal-Schizoid Variation Schizotypal-schizoid individuals are characteristically drab, sluggish, and inexpressive. They display a marked deficit in their affective expression and appear bland, untroubled, indifferent, and unmotivated by the outside world. Their cognitive processes seem obscure and vague. Such individuals seem unable to experience the subtle emotional aspects of social exchange. Interpersonal communications are often vague and confused. The speech pattern of these individuals tend to be monotonous, listless, or at times, inaudible. Most people consider these individuals as strange, curious, aloof, and lethargic. In effect, they become background people satisfied to live their lives in an isolated, secluded manner. Case 11.1 portrays such an individual. Schizotypal-Avoidant Variation Schizotypal-avoidant individuals are restrained and isolated. Similarly, they are apprehensive, guarded, and interpersonally withdrawing. As a protective device, they seek to eliminate their own desires and feeling for interpersonal affiliation, for they expect only rejection and pain from interacting with others. Thus, apathy, indifference, and impoverished thought, which we saw in the cognitive and affective insensitivity, is presented here as a result of an attempt to dampen an intrinsic oversensitivity. The case of Harold T. is a study of a schizotypal-avoidant individual. SELF-PERPETUATION OF THE SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER The prognosis for the schizotypal personality disorder is perhaps the least promising of all the personality disorder discussed in this text. Let us examine why. The self-perpetuating spiral of deterioration that occurs in the schizotypal disorder is fostered by three major factors: (1) social isolation, (2) dependency training, and (3) self-insulation. Social Isolation Individuals who possess the schizotypal disorder are often segregated from social contact. They are kept at home or hospitalized with minimal encouragement to progress on a social basic. Social isolation such as this serves not to perpetuate the difficulties these individuals have with cognitive organization and social skills, but also serves to worsen the status of both. In many instances, the social isolation seems to stimulate a regression on the part of these individuals. They will tend to lose what cognitive and social abilities they may have had before the isolation. Jane W. was clearly capable of returning to society if she had been provided adequate social support. Without such support, the only option was to keep her institutionalized. Dependency Training Often found in conjunction with social isolation is the tendency on the part of those around schizotypal individuals to be overly protective. They will tend to patronize or coddle them. Such overprotection tends to reinforce dependent behavior on the part of the schizotypal. According to Millon (1981), Prolonged guidance and shielding of this kind may lead to a progressive impoverishment of competencies and self-motivation, and result in a total helplessness. Under such ostensibly good regimens, schizotypals will be reinforced to learn dependency and apathy (p. 427). Self-Insulation Finally, not only through mismanagement and neglect will the schizotypal disorder be perpetuated, but also through the tendency of these individuals to insulate themselves from outside stimulation. As we described earlier, to protect themselves from painful humiliation, rejection, or excessive demands, schizotypals have learned to withdraw from reality and disengage themselves from social life. Even though exposed to active social opportunities, most of these individuals will participate only reluctantly. They prefer to keep to themselves-to withdraw. Without active social relationships, these individuals will simply recede further into social isolation, apathy, and dependency. Thus, the disorder is perpetuated. The case of Harold T. demonstrates a condition in which his ability to insulate himself has served as an effective barrier to rehabilitation. His apathy, lack of verbal communication, and habit of drawing strange and religiouslike pictures has effectively insulated him from other and has removed any hope of improvement for almost 10 years. So, in summary, we see that through social isolation, dependency training, and self-insulation, the schizotypal disorder is perpetuated. Although the motives for socially isolating and overprotecting these individuals are usually good, that is, with best interests of the patient in mind, the tactics are actually counterproductive for they deprive the patients of the opportunity to develop social skills while reinforcing dependency. The schizotypals own tendency to insulate himself/herself from social contact serves to exacerbate the disorder even further. Such self-insulation serves to foster and further perpetuate the spiral of cognitive and social deterioration that typifies the schizotypal disorder. Schizotypal Personality Disorder DSM-IV Criteria A pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits marked by acute discomfort with, and reduced capacity for, close relationships as well as by cognitive or perceptual distortions and accentricities of behavior, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following: Ideas of reference (excluding delusions of reference) Odd beliefs or magical thinking that influences behavior and is inconsistent with subcultural norms (e.g., superstitiousness, belief in clairvoyance, telepathy, or sixth sense; in children and adolescents, bizarre fantasies or preoccupations) Unusual perceptual experiences, including bodily illusions Odd thinking and speech (e.g., vague, circumstantial, metaphorical, overelaborate, or stereotyped) Suspiciousness or paranoid ideation Inappropriate or constricted affect Behavior or appearance that is odd, eccentric, or peculiar Lack of close friends or confidants other than first-degree relatives Excessive social anxiety that does not diminish with familiarity and tends to be associated with paranoid fears rather than negative judgments about self Reproduced with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. Copyright 1994 American Psychiatric Association. Therapy The schizotypal is perhaps one of the easiest personality disorders to identify but one of the most difficult to treat with psychotherapy. The thought disorder and accompanying paranoid ideation work to distort communication between therapist and client and inhibit the formation of a trusting therapeutic alliance. Moreover, because schizotypals are inherently isolative and nonrelational, the therapist may sometimes be experienced as an intrusive presence. Because the alliance is the very foundation of therapy, medication is often needed before lasting progress can be made, especially with subjects who express the disorder severely. THERAPEUTIC TRAPS The expectations of the therapist and their influence on therapy are particularly important and may require careful monitoring. Most schizotypals initially see the therapist as attacking or humiliating (Benjamin, 1996). As anxiety increases, they may retreat further behind a curtain of disordered communication as a means of shielding themselves and confusing the intruder. Occasional retreats are universal. Therapists who become vexed when greeted with silence and emotional distancing only create an atmosphere that justifies such a reaction. Instead, the need for distance must be respected, without conveying feelings of disapproval or inducing guilt, to which many subjects are especially sensitive. Not pushing too hard or too fast can prevent severe anxiety and paranoid reactions. Extraordinary patience may be required because schizotypals repeatedly misperceive aspects of the therapeutic relationship and then act on these misperceptions. Subjects who believe they have privileged access to information beyond the five senses sometimes apply their extrasensory powers to therapy and the therapist, believing that they can read the therapists mind or arrive at conclusions about what the therapist secretly desires on the basic of tangential or irrelevant cues. Accordingly, communication should be simple, straightforward, shorn of psychological jargon, and require a minimm of inference. Schizotypals find it difficult enough to bring order to their own thoughts, much less penetrate ambiguities and double messages carelessly introduced by others. The concrete is to be preferred over the poetic because the latter is naturally rich in connotations, which play havoc with schizotypal cognition. Special attention to the countertransference is in order, for unconscious feelings emitted by the therapist bring an unknown complexity to communication and are especially likely to be misconstrued by subjects. STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES What can be done in therapy often depends on the extent to which the thought disorder intrinsic to the syndrome can be controlled. Otherwise, every aspect of therapy becomes more complicated. Further, the appropriate goals and strategies for any particular subject depend on whether his or her symptoms most resemble an exaggerated schizoid pattern, an exaggerated avoidant pattern, or a mixture of the two. Strategies and techniques appropriate for the dominant underlying personality disorder can be used to supplement the primary goals of treating the schizotypal pattern (refer to the appropriate chapter). Establishing a more normal pattern of interpersonal relationships is a primary goal of therapy. Social isolation intensifies cognitive deficits and allows social skills to atrophy. Contatc with a therapist can prevent further deterioration. Because patterns of disordered family communication typify the early developmental environment of these subjects, therapy offers the chance for a novel, corrective interpersonal relationship through steady support and euthenticity. Accordingly, as emphasized by Benjamin (1996), the basic skills of humanistic therapy, including accurate empathy, mirroring, and unconditional positive regard, become particularly important. Benjamin states that the therapeutic alliance may represent a chance to experience a nonexploitive protectiveness, one that eventually permits the schizotypal to give up management of the universe by magical means (p. 360). After an alliance has been established, subject can be encouraged to voice distortions of reality as they occur, and these can be discussed in the context of the therapeutic relationship. Benjamin (1996) further stresses that many schizotypals are likely to belive that harm may come to the therapist through their association. As such ideas are voiced, they can be tested realistically and tactfully refuted. In general, interpersonal therapy should enhance subjects sense of self-worth and encourage the realization of positive attributes, an important step in defeating detachment, rebuilding motivation, and providing confidence necessary to take the first steps toward constructive social encounters outside therapy. Because schizotypals have difficulty sorting the relevant and irrelevant in interpersonal relationships, therapists may find that much of their time is spent helping the schizotypal test interpersonal reality and gain perspective on which behaviors might be appropriate in whatever situations are current in the subjects life. Repeated discussions of essentially similar situations may be necessary, as many schizotypals fail to realize that these are but variatio ns on a theme. Basic social skills training are often helpful. Modeling behaviors provides an example that even concrete subjects can imitate. The ability to appraise interpersonal realities appropriately is an important step in decreasing social anxiety and accompanying paranoid symptoms while creating a capacity for appropriate affect and a sense of reward. From a cognitive perspective, psychotherapy must adapt to the schizotypals limited attentional resources and tendency to intrude tangential factors. Because many schizotypals are either overly concrete or overly abstract, learning may be generalized to other settings and situations only with great difficulty. Simplicity and structure help prevent the lessons of therapy from being obscured by the discombobulating effects of thought disorder. Furthermore, cognitive techniques allow the content of thought to be identified and eventually modified. This suggests that the combination of medication and cognitive therapy should be particularly effective. Writing in Beck et al. (1990), Ottaviani indicates that the first step is to identity characteristic automatic thoughts, such as, I am a nonbeing, as well as patterns of emotional reasoning and personalization, reviewed previously. Moreover, she suggests that assumptions underlying social interaction present an especially profitable avenue for change, as schizotypals usually believe that other dislike them. Subjects must be taught to act as naÃÆ'Â ¯ve scientists and test their thoughts against the evidence. Feelings do not make facts; instead, each cognition is a hypothesis and should be disregarded if found inconsistent with the objective evidence. Even bizarre thoughts can be dealt with in this way. The thought, I am leaving my body, for example, can be countered with prepared countercognitions: There I go again. Even though Im thinking this thought, it doesnt mean that its true (p. 141) Because an effective grasp of objective reality is the Catch-22 of the cognitive approach, Ottaviani further suggests that schizotypals also be taught methods for gathering contrary evidence. Subjects can list evidence inconsistent with their predictions, for example. Going beyond content, cognitive style interventions can also be made. Rambling can be countered by requests for summary statements, and global statements can be countered by asking for elaboration. Finally, where subjects are not too paranoid or bizarre, group settings can be used to practice social functioning and provide feedback about distorted cognitions. Because classical psychodynamic therapy is inherently unstructured, its use is probably not advised. As noted by Stone (1985), the purpose of psychodynamic therapy should be to internalize the therapeutic alliance. Because the early home environment of most schizotypals is likely to feature fragmented and chaotic communications, the ego boundaries of the schizotypal subject are only poorly developed. The interpretation of conflict not only disregards their desire for distance but also plays into their fear of engulfment. Accordingly, silence should be accepted as a legitimate part of the personality (Gabbard, 1994). Once this acceptance is felt, the subject may then begin to reveal hidden aspects of the self that can be adaptively integrated. Analytic procedures such as free association, the neutral attitude of the therapist, and the focus on dreams may foster an increase in autistic reveries and social withdrawal. Probably the most useful analytic suggestion comes from Rado (1959), who suggests that identifying and capitalizing on some source of pleasure, however small, is a superordinate therapeutic goal. Motivation develops from the capacity for pleasure, and ultimately, only this can balance the painful emotions, attach the schizotypal to the real world, and prevent the dissolution of the self and cognitive disintegration that results from autistic withdrawal.

Organic Anion Transporters Essay -- Biology

The main location of the protein organic anion transporter 3 is in the kidney and the function of the kidney is to get toxins, usually in the form of organic anions, or even medications out of the body. In order to separate and transport these toxins through the blood to the kidney, specific proteins called organic anion transporters (OAT) exist. The sole function of these proteins is to bind to these molecules and take them to the kidney where they can be separated from the blood and excreted. The way these proteins work is that they have a highly specific active site (or binding site) which has unique properties that make it prone to attaching to various organic anions. To better understand the role of OAT 3, a specific OAT protein which is present in the choroid plexus (spinal fluid) and the kidney, an experiment was conducted in which this protein was removed from rats by replacing the DNA code for OAT 3 with a similar, but not functional code. These OAT 3 knockout rats showed an inability to transport certain organic anions including toxins, hormones, and drugs. Methods Procedures: 1. Isolation of the OAT3 Gene 2. Analysis of changes in tissues of the wild type and OAT3 type 3. Northern Analysis 4. RT-PCR 5. Methods of Measuring Transport 6. Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy 1. Isolation of OAT3 gene: The strategy used here was a deletion of exon 3. An exon is a portion of a DNA molecule that codes for part of a polypeptide, which gets expressed. So the deletion of this particular exon caused a frame-shift mutation and a premature stop codon to be brought in. This just means that the messenger RNA (mRNA) that is transcribed from the gene gets translated normally until the ribosome co... ...family will allow humans to further expand the effectiveness of drug treatment. First, if the organic anion transport system could be blocked, certain medicines then would stay in the system longer that would otherwise have been excreted. This would allow for more effective and shorter treatment. Second, not everyone has the same amount of organic anion transporters in their system, thus by genotyping a patient and discovering the amount of the transporters present in the individual, a personalized drug regiment could be devised , making it more effective for the individual. Third, by identifying the anion transported by each OAT (OAT 1-4), certain toxins could be transported out of the system much faster and prevent less damage of certain toxins to the system. By altering the amounts of the OAT family present doctors could speed up the recovery process.

Economics Essay -- Understanding Economics Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Definition of Topic: Economics is the study of supply and demand. It defines the ways that human beings allocate resources and how resources are distributed amongst a market. It allows you to see trends in current market places and predict what may happen in the future. Many different subjects were once regarded as a part of economics. Political science and even sociology were once considered part of the field. These subjects still play a major role in understanding economics but are also completely separate disciplines today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  History: Since ancient times, humans have contemplated basic economic problems. Many great minds have tried to master the subject. Aristotle and Plato were probably the first to document such studies. Both agreed that living by trade was ill fated. Influenced by Greek economic ideals the Romans built their wealth. After the fall of Rome, the Catholic Church would become the power behind most economic laws. They would condemn usury and regarded commerce as inferior to agriculture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It wasn’t until 1776 that economics became a study of its own. Adam Smith is considered the father of economics. Through his work Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, he used mercantilism and physiocracy to develop classical economics. Smith emphasized consumption, rather than production to broaden the scope of economics. Modern thought still follows his examples for permitting self-interest in order to promote national prosperity. This is most evident when looking at today’s smaller business market.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Twenty years later, Malthus would write a discouraging, but very influential book, An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus believed that the human race would eventually be doomed by overpopulation. His theory was that food would increase in arithmetic ratio but population would double every generation. This theory is faulty because it does not account for disease, famine, war, etc. Malthus’ view of supply and demand left a permanent impression on generations to come. It would hence be know as â€Å"the dismal science.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Next to revolutionize economics would be the Communist Manifesto in 1848. Karl Marx had the classical vision of capitalism, Marxism was in large measure a sharp rebuttal, but to some extent it embodied variations of classical themes. For Marx, the labor theory was a clue to the inner work... ...oss the country at many prestigious universities for economics professors. As an economics major, graduates could work for the National Institute of Health as an Operations Research Analyst, as an accountant (anywhere), or in almost any research or marketing opening. The Centers for Disease Control even require economists; they currently have positions open for post-doctorate fellowships. These are just a sampling of the job opportunities in the field and related fields of economics. With very little research, anyone interested in economics could find a plethora of interesting and challenging careers pursuable within the realm of economics. Works Cited The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright  © 1994, 2000, Columbia University   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. http://www.careerbuilder.com searched (economics) http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/bus/A0816721.html http://www.whitehouse.gov/fsbr/employment.html Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2002.  © 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Understanding Business. Nickels, William G. McHugh, James M. McHugh, Susan M. Copyright 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York, New York.

A Day of Many Events

The day I was born, April 28, 1982 was a day of love, business and learning. While the (insert surname) family is happily waiting for the love child of (name of your parents), series of events was also happening. It was a day filled with many activities and a day of expectations. In Federal Agencies, reports were made from the Education Week about the public hearings on bilingual education. This happened on the day I was born, April 28, 1982, from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., in the El Fauno Room of the Condado Beach Hotel, San Juan, Puerto Rico (Education Week). Meanwhile, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration released reports involving the astronauts Robert L. Gibson and Rhea Seddon about the good news of expecting the birth of their first child. It was indeed a much anticipated moment for the couple to have a baby of their own (Lawrence). World Bank History also made one historical event on the day I was born. The IFC (International Finance Corp.) and IDA (International Development Association) Articles of Agreement were signed by Saint Lucia, a Caribbean island nation. The small country became IFC’s 122nd member and IDA’s 130th member. It was a huge leap towards developing funds for the world (World Bank). Clearly, on the day when my mother gave birth to me, there were many events that occurred in history. It was a day of hope for the education system when public hearings were conducted for the proposed Bilingual Education System. It was also a day of happiness and expectation for an astronaut couple. It was also an important day in the history of World Bank, when Saint Lucia joined IFC and IDA. Meanwhile, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, my parents were happily expecting a special gift—they were excited to see one bouncing baby who will add happiness to our family. Indeed, April 28, 1982 was a day of hope, excitement, and fulfillment for my family and for the world. Works Cited Name of your mother, Personal Interview. 2 April 2008. â€Å"This Week in World Bank History: April 28 – May 4† 2008.† The World Bank Archives. Worldbank. April 2008    â€Å"In Federal Agencies.† Education Week. Edweek. 28 April 1982. 5 April 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lawrence, John. â€Å"Expectant Astronauts.† 1981-1983 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) News. NASA. 28 April 1982. 5 April 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚